Lincoln Center: For the Performing Architects

By Yashodhan Mangukia
Summer 2024 | Cornell AAP

Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts is the largest performing arts complex in the United States, situated on the West side of Manhattan between Central Park and the Hudson River, bounded by 66th Street and Amsterdam Avenue (Jackson, 1995, p. 677). In 1968, Clive Barnes described it as “The biggest and most brutish conglomeration devoted to culture, culture and still more culture, that the world has ever seen” (Dimendberg, 2013, p. 174). The groundbreaking ceremony was held on May 14, 1959, with President Dwight Eisenhower in attendance. The plans for the center began around 1954 under the idea of Urban Renewal by Robert Moses, with financial backing from John D. Rockefeller Jr., John D. Rockefeller III, and several others, alongside architect Wallace Harrison of Harrison and Abramovitz (Zipp, 2010, p. 185).

Figure 1: Graphical map for visitor’s information at Lincoln Center. Photograph by Author, June 22, 2024.

Wallace Harrison gained immense recognition early in his career with the successful completion of Rockefeller Center, and later with the UN Headquarters on 42nd Street. He was the master planner for Lincoln Center, collaborating with various architects on individual buildings within the complex (Ockman, 2024).

Figure 2: View of the Metropolitan Opera House from the plaza. Photograph by Author, June 22, 2024.

The Conception and Development of Lincoln Center

The conception of Lincoln Center began in the post-World War II era as part of the larger Lincoln Square Urban Renewal project led by Robert Moses. The complex was envisioned as a cultural hub for the city, an answer to the lack of such public spaces in New York. The site would house several institutions including the Metropolitan Opera, New York City Ballet, New York Philharmonic, New York Public Library for Performing Arts, and Juilliard School. With the approval of these cultural institutions, Moses was able to convince stakeholders to move forward with the project.

Figure 3: Proposed site for Lincoln Center. Photograph from Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, 1995. New York 1960.

In June 1956, the group chaired by John D. Rockefeller III formed the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, Inc. as a non-profit organization. By 1969, they had raised more than USD 185 million for construction, along with federal support. The committee decided the complex would also house an American repertory theater, offering a permanent home despite the abundance of commercial theaters in New York.

In May 1957, Robert Moses presented the plans for the entire renewal area to Mayor Wagner and the Board of Estimate. Among the proposed plans was a mixed-use building by Broadway producer Roger L. Stevens, which was eventually dropped due to budgetary constraints (Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, 1995, p. 680).

The Urban Renewal Plan and Displacement

As part of the Urban Renewal Plan and the Federal Housing Act of 1949, existing buildings in the area were demolished, displacing residents. Although the cost of demolition was initially intended to be borne by the municipality, New York regulations required that the sponsor, Lincoln Center, Inc., cover the expenses. For Robert Moses, Lincoln Center represented a leisure and cultural asset to the city, while Rockefeller saw it as part of his family's legacy of "public-spirited works."

Stern, Mellins, and Fishman (1995) describe the project as an attempt to fulfill the destiny of New York, following the economic collapse of Europe after World War I and the out-migration of cultural forces during the 1930s and 1940s.

Figure 4: President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the groundbreaking for Lincoln Center. Photograph by New York World-Telegram, Library of Congress.

The Design and Architectural Team

As the design for the Lincoln Center progressed, Wallace Harrison, despite being hired to lead the project, was reluctant to take the lead role due to his past experience with the UN Headquarters. Harrison suggested several European architects, but the committee ultimately selected American architects. The final list included Pietro Belluschi for Juilliard School, Eero Saarinen for the repertory theater, Gordon Bunshaft of SOM for the library and museum, and Philip Johnson for the New York City Ballet. Wallace Harrison took responsibility for the Metropolitan Opera House (Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, 1995, p. 682).

Figure 5: Architects and designers of Lincoln Center, posed in an oversized mock-up of the complex. Photograph by Arnold Newman Collection, Getty Images.

The team faced challenges in reconciling their different visions for the complex. Saarinen and Bunshaft proposed an all-encompassing megastructure, but the committee rejected their plan in favor of individual buildings. Philip Johnson played a crucial role in unifying the disparate structures by proposing a master plan that fixed the locations of the buildings early on, despite many of his ideas being rejected (Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, 1995, p. 684).

Unifying Elements: Materials and Design

The buildings at Lincoln Center were unified not just through their location but also through common materials. Pietro Belluschi proposed the use of Roman travertine for all the buildings, a suggestion that was met with opposition. The use of Italian stone, which was more expensive than anticipated, led to protests and increased costs. Despite this, travertine was eventually used, though American workers had to fashion the stone at a higher cost than it would have taken to import it already cut (Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, 1995, p. 683).

Figure 8: Subway exit looking towards Symphony Hall (David Geffen Hall). Photograph by Author, 2024.

Koolhaas on Lincoln Center

Rem Koolhaas, in his book Delirious New York (1994), critiques the design of Lincoln Center. He argues that Harrison’s design represents a shift away from the rigid grid of Manhattan, embracing a curvilinear approach before ultimately yielding to the grid’s constraints. Koolhaas suggests that the vision of a single megastructure proposed by Aalto and Breuer, and later by Saarinen and Bunshaft, would have been more in line with his ideals, rather than the existing set of individual buildings (Koolhaas, 1994, p. 289).

While this essay primarily focuses on the 1960s, the later development of Lincoln Center by Diller Scofidio + Renfro (2003-2009) introduces new discussions about the monumental scale of public buildings. Lincoln Center remains a crucial public space, hosting festivals and outdoor events, even though its monumental scale can seem emptier when performances are not taking place. As Koolhaas notes, this grand scale can only truly exist in a city like New York.

Figure 9: Initial proposal for Lincoln Center by Hugh Ferriss. Photograph from Delirious New York (Rem Koolhaas, 1994).

Conclusion

Lincoln Center’s design and history are marked by its monumental scale, the tensions between individual architects, and its symbolic role in New York’s cultural identity. Despite the controversies surrounding urban renewal and displacement, Lincoln Center’s ongoing relevance continues to inspire conversations on architecture, public space, and the role of culture in urban life.

Bibliography

• Dimendberg, Edward. Diller Scofidio + Renfro: Architecture After Images. University of Chicago Press, 2013.

• Flint, Anthony. Wrestling with Moses: How Jane Jacobs Took On New York's Master Builder and Transformed the American City. Random House Publishing Group, 2011.

• Jackson, Kenneth T., ed. The Encyclopedia of New York City. Yale University Press, 1995.

• Koolhaas, Rem. Delirious New York. Monacelli Press, 1994.

• Ockman, Joan. New York as Incubator of Twentieth-Century Urbanism. Cornell AAP, 2024.

• Stern, Robert A. M., Thomas Mellins, and David Fishman. New York 1960: Architecture and Urbanism Between the Second World War and the Bicentennial. Monacelli Press, 1995.

• Zipp, Samuel. Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York. Oxford University Press, 2010.